How to be better at Speaking.

1. Change your smart speaker settings

Do you have one or more smart speakers at home? Did you know that some of them will allow you to talk to them in two languages? If yours lets you do this, change its settings so that you can give instructions in English as well as your mother tongue.

Once you’ve changed the settings, you can have a lot of fun talking to your smart speaker in English. For example, if you have an Amazon Alexa speaker, this page has lots of funny things you can ask it, such as:

  • Alexa, give me a kiss!
  • Alexa, do you know the muffin man?
  • Alexa, can you sing in autotune?

Similarly, if you have a Google Home speaker, there are also lots of entertaining things you can ask, including:

  • What language do you speak?
  • Do you have an imagination?
  • What is the meaning of life?

Of course, you can still use English to get useful information from your smart speaker, such as the daily news, weather and delivery status of your online orders. Be creative!

2. Talk to yourself!

You don’t need an audience to practise speaking English. You can talk to yourself at any time!

The big advantage of talking to yourself is that you can choose whatever topic or theme you like. For example, one day you could decide to speak using the present tense. The next day you could switch to the future or past tenses, and so on.

One top tip is to speak to yourself while standing in front of a mirror. That way you can see how clearly you are pronouncing words and phrases. An even better alternative is to video yourself as you speak in English. This lets you play back the footage and get a more objective view of your pronunciation and fluency.

3. Narrate your everyday life

If it’s difficult for you to dedicate time to speaking English, why not narrate your everyday life? As you walk to the shops, take the bus or train, go for a run or do any other activity, try describing in English what you see around you. How many people are walking ahead of you? What different products are on sale in the shops? How many stops has your bus made on the way to its destination? What would advertising posters say if they were written in English?

Of course, you may not be comfortable speaking out loud when there are other people around. But if even if you narrate your day silently, you’ll be thinking in English – and that’s the main skill you need in order to speak fluently.

4. Try shadowing

This tip is great for polishing your accent, as well as improving your familiarity with spoken English. All you need to do is watch an English-speaking film or listen to anglophone radio or podcasts. When someone speaks, try saying exactly the same thing immediately afterwards. By doing this, you are acting as an ‘echo’ or a ‘shadow’.

For shadowing to work best, don’t stop the audio before you repeat the words. Try to keep up. Why? Because this is the technique developed by linguist Alexander Argüelles, who can ‘read about three dozen languages and speak most of them fluently‘!

5. Read aloud

You probably read a lot of English to help improve your language skills. Whether you’re interested in online articles, novels and short stories, magazines or anything else, make a habit of reading them aloud whenever possible. That way, you’ll not only become familiar with the written words, but you’ll get valuable practice of speaking them.

6. Practice speaking with friends

It can be incredibly motivating to learn with friends. So, if you have friends who either speak English or are learning it, be sure to create opportunities to talk to each other. Whether you arrange regular English conversation sessions, decide to speak English when you meet up for a drink, or have regular video chats via WhatsApp, Skype or Zoom, you’ll be helping each other to practise and learn.

7. Play online games

We’ve already blogged about how online gaming can help you improve your English. Games with online text and audio chat are great because they allow you to communicate with native English speakers as you play. You’ll also learn some really fun gaming slang along the way.

8. Take online classes led by an expert English speaker

The very best way to improve your spoken English is to spend time learning with an expert English speaker. That way you can get instant feedback on your spoken English, learn lots of idioms and useful phrases, and ask for help when you need it. These days you can access online courses led by English experts, wherever you are in the world. For example, live online classes with English Online give you the opportunity to take part in small-grouptutorials led by an English speaker. Alternatively, you can sign up for one-to-one tuition with a personal English tutor.

Practicing your spoken English needn’t be difficult, and it can often be fun. Be creative, make use of what resources you have available to you and – if possible – try and spend at least some time talking with native speakers. One thing we do know: if you make speaking English part of your daily routine, you’ll learn to speak more fluently, much faster.

Source: https://englishonline.britishcouncil.org/blog/articles/8-practical-ways-to-practise-speaking-english/

Learning tip: Read and relax!

If you have some free time over the holidays, reading stories is an excellent way to practice and improve your English. Stories aren’t just fun to read. They also contain a wide range of language, including words, structures, styles and meanings that you may not find in other reading texts.

Bellow you can find links with some stories that were written especially for learners at different levels. Here’s some advice:

  • Don’t choose a story that is too difficult. If it’s difficult, you’ll feel confused.
  • Don’t check the dictionary a lot. It slows down your reading and makes it hard to enjoy.
  • Choose a story with some words that are new for you but whose words you mostly understand. That will allow you to enjoy the story more and also improve your reading speed.

Enjoy your reading time!

https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/general-english/story-zone/a2-b1-

https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/general-english/story-zone/b2-c1-stories

Source: https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/general-english/story-zone?utm_campaign=english-all-learnenglish-global-newsletters&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=66874876&_hsenc=p2ANqtz-8ej0mVCw1DFzWnvq2a0ANLaTk6fQ8kjssH8b1ykyQyCn_WtiB5ReX5kAZD0HqvK5cnesSaXjKkckCtwKEpikT7nno5hQ&utm_content=66874876&utm_source=hs_email

Common beliefs about dyslexia

Dyslexia is primarily a language-based reading disability, not a visual-based disability.

Research has shown that people with dyslexia are more likely to have children with dyslexia. A child with one parent with dyslexia is about 40% to 60% likely to have dyslexia themselves.

In dyslexia identification there are clear and well-defined cut-off points. An individual either has dyslexia or not.

Because the core difficulties associated with dyslexia are related to how the individual sounds of language are processed in the brain, and not visual perception, coloured overlays do not improve reading accuracy or comprehension for dyslexic students. Research evidence shows no significant benefit in terms of objectively measurable reading gains when using colored overlays despite the fact that many dyslexic students report that they find them useful.

People with dyslexia have difficulties with processing and manipulating the smallest sounds of language, called phonemes. Research shows that, in students with dyslexia, the part of the brain that processes those sounds and connects those sounds to letters is under-activated as compared with typically developing readers. People with dyslexia also perform more poorly on tasks that require analyzing, synthesizing, and manipulating phonemes.

There is no scientific evidence that seeing letters and words backwards is a characteristic of dyslexia.

There is a significant and pronounced difference between males and females when it comes to ‘identified’ dyslexia and reading difficulties. There are a number of reasons for this, one of them is that females and males use different behavioural and emotional compensation techniques and react differently when faced with these challenges. Therefore boys are more easily identified as dyslexic in school settings. When researchers identify dyslexia in the general population, there is less pronounced difference between males and females in the prevalence of dyslexia. Researchers examined gender differences based on the variation in reading abilities among males and females. They found that males show more variability and depending on the cut-off point for identifying dyslexia, indeed there might be more male than female dyslexics (Hawke, J. L., Olson, R. K., Willcut, E. G., Wadsworth, S. J., & DeFries, J. C. (2009). Gender ratios for reading difficulties. Dyslexia, 15(3), 239-242.)

This statement might be true although research evidence is often contradictory on this question.

Research suggests that there are significantly more dyslexic individuals among art students than non-dyslexic ones (Wolff, U., & Lundberg, I. (2002). The prevalence of dyslexia among art students. Dyslexia, 8(1), 34-42). There is also neuroimaging evidence that shows that lower reading skill is associated with a visuospatial processing advantage (Diehl, J. J., Frost, S. J., Sherman, G., Mencl, W. E., Kurian, A., Molfese, P., … & Pugh, K. R. (2014). Neural correlates of language and non-language visuospatial processing in adolescents with reading disability. NeuroImage, 101, 653-666). However, some studies have found that the visuospatial superiority is more apparent in dyslexic men than women (Brunswick, N., Martin, G. N., & Marzano, L. (2010). Visuospatial superiority in developmental dyslexia: Myth or reality?. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 421-426.)

Because dyslexia is caused by difficulties with processing individual sounds of language in the brain, researchers know that effective instruction includes explicit and systematic instruction in phonemic awareness (practice manipulating the individual sounds in our language) and phonics (practice connecting those individual sounds, or phonemes, to letters). There are no scientifically proven benefits of eye-tracking exercises.

Source: https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/dyslexia/8/steps/1399907

Remote teaching tips

This publication offers a range of practical tips and advice for remote teaching in all contexts.

Technology has already transformed our century. Smartphones, cloud computing, social media and videoconferencing are only a few of the major innovations that have exploded onto the scene. They have changed our lives and completely changed the ways in which we communicate and access information and learning. 

Yet in 2020 teachers have also had to face another unexpected challenge – the Covid-19 pandemic. We know many children have missed learning during school closures and too many lack the conditions for remote learning. But the more that teachers can provide remote teaching the better.

These tips provide new ideas for teachers less familiar with remote teaching and provide fresh insights for teachers who already teach remotely. See the list of tips and guidance below:

  • Getting started with online teaching
  • Keeping your learners safe online
  • Lesson planning for teaching live online
  • A menu of ideas for online lessons
  • Supporting neurodiversity in online teaching
  • Inclusion in remote teaching contexts
  • Helping parents and caregivers to support remote learning
  • Supporting your child to learn remotely at home
  • Maximising speaking opportunities in online lessons
  • Maintaining student motivation while teaching remotely
  • Using Facebook to teach English remotely
  • Using mobile messenger apps to teach English remotely
  • Teaching English via television or YouTube
  • Teaching English using SMS
  • Teaching English via telephone calls
  • Teaching English via radio
  • Teaching English remotely with limited technology
  • Zoom: top tips for online English teaching

Source: https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/remote-teaching-tips

What happens when we open a book? 📚

I Opened A Book
by Julia Donaldson

I opened a book and in I strode
Now nobody can find me.
I’ve left my chair, my house, my road,
My town and my world behind me.

I’m wearing the cloak, I’ve slipped on the ring,
I’ve swallowed the magic potion.
I’ve fought with a dragon, dined with a king
And dived in a bottomless ocean.

I opened a book and made some friends.
I shared their tears and laughter
And followed their road with its bumps and bends
To the happily ever after.

I finished my book and out I came.
The cloak can no longer hide me.
My chair and my house are just the same,
But I have a book inside me.

“Books shouldn’t be daunting, they should be funny, exciting and wonderful; and learning to be a reader gives a terrific advantage.” Roald Dahl

“There is no bond like the bond of having read and liked the same books.” E. Nesbit

“Books are the quietest and most constant of friends; they are the most accessible and wisest of counsellors, and the most patient of teachers”. Charles W. Eliot

Source: http://www.activityvillage.co.uk/

New Year’s celebration around the world

https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/general-english/magazine-zone/new-year-celebrations?utm_source=newsletter&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=english-adults-leweb-global-global-2022-01-le-newsletter

New year, old celebrations

There have been celebrations to mark the beginning of a new year for thousands of years. Sometimes these were simply an opportunity for people to eat, drink and have fun, but in some places the festivities were connected to the land or astronomical events. For example, in Egypt the beginning of the year coincided with when the River Nile flooded, and this normally happened when the star Sirius rose. The Persians and Phoenicians started their new year at the spring equinox (this is around 20 March when the Sun shines more or less directly on the equator and the length of the night and the day are almost the same).

The oldest celebration

The city of Babylon in ancient Mesopotamia was where the first New Year’s celebrations were recorded about 4,000 years ago. The Babylonians held their celebrations on the first new moon after the spring equinox and called this festival Akitu (which comes from the word the Sumerians used for barley). Barley was cut in Mesopotamia in the spring, and during Akitu there was a different ritual on each of the 11 days that the celebration lasted. Statues of the gods were carried through the streets of the city, and in this way the Babylonians believed that their world had been cleaned to prepare for the new year and a new spring.

Modern celebrations

In many cities all over the world, spectacular fireworks displays take place as soon as the clock passes midnight on 31 December. In recent years, Sydney in Australia has been the host to one of the first of these celebrations as New Year arrives there before most other major international cities. The display takes place in Sydney Harbour, with the Opera House and Harbour Bridge making it a stunning setting. Fireworks light up the skies in hundreds of cities as 12 midnight strikes around the globe.

Traditions that live on

There are a number of strange and interesting New Year’s traditions around the world. In Scotland, New Year’s Eve is called Hogmanay and ‘first footing’ remains a popular custom with people visiting friends’ and neighbours’ houses just after midnight. The first person who visits your house should bring a gift as this will mean good luck. In Spain, it is the custom to eat 12 grapes as the bells sound for midnight on 31 December. One grape is eaten at each sound of the bell and each grape is supposed to bring good luck for each month of the year ahead. In Brazil, Ecuador, Bolivia, Venezuela and some other Central and South American countries, people wear special underwear of different colours on New Year’s Eve. Red is supposed to be good for bringing love in the new year, while yellow is supposed to bring money.

Out with the old, in with the new

The new year is a perfect time to make a change for the better. The tradition of making New Year’s resolutions is more common in the western hemisphere but also exists in the eastern hemisphere. This tradition involves a person making a commitment to change an unwanted habit or behaviour or setting a personal objective. Typical New Year’s resolutions might be to give up smoking, eat healthier food, do more exercise, become more organised or laugh more – but really, a New Year’s resolution can be almost anything. However, research suggests that many New Year’s resolutions fail. Being realistic about the objectives you set and not making too many New Year’s resolutions might help you to achieve success

Terminology for Reading and Listening

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Reading for gist/Skimming

Reading quickly to get a general understanding of a written text, eg reading a description of a city to find out if it sounds like somewhere you’d like to visit.

Reading for specific information/Scanning

Searching for a particular piece of information in a written text, eg reading a description of a city only to find out which country it’s in.

Reading/listening for detail

Reading or listening more carefully so that you get a full understanding of the text, eg reading a description of a city to find out everything about it.

Listening for gist

Getting a general understanding of something you hear, eg listening to the weather forecast and deciding you might need to take an umbrella when you go out.

Listening for specific information

Listening for a particular piece of information, eg listening to the weather forecast to find out what the temperature will be tomorrow.

Inferring meaning

Making guesses about what is not stated explicitly in a text, eg listening or reading a conversation and deciding that the people are brother and sister without them saying so.

Coherence

Organising ideas in a logical way when speaking or writing so that the listener or reader can follow our ideas.

Cohesion

Joining sentences together using words like and, but and because so our language flows more easily.

Interactive strategies

Strategies we use when we are speaking, eg showing you are listening to other people by saying things like, mmmm or uh-uh or oh!

Turn taking

An interactive strategy which is about knowing when you can join in a conversation and signalling when you think someone else should speak.

Fluency

For speaking; this is speaking without a lot of hesitation and too many long pauses. For writing; this means you can write without stopping for a long time to think about what to write.

Como melhorar suas habilidades em inglês

Ouça inglês o máximo possível

Pode ser nas músicas, séries de TV, filmes, vídeos na internet e tudo mais que você conseguir. Mesmo para quem está começando a explorar esse idioma agora e entende apenas algumas (poucas) palavras, criar o hábito de ouvir é fundamental. Assim, pouco a pouco você vai se familiarizando com a pronúncia dos vocábulos e como uma palavra acaba se “emendando” na outra em uma frase.

Não tenha medo de se expor ao inglês em vários momentos do seu dia, independente do quanto você consegue compreender no início.

 

Não se assuste quando não entender

É perfeitamente normal não compreender algumas coisas que você ouve em inglês, especialmente se estiver no início da sua empreitada. Lembre-se que, algumas vezes, você não entende nem mesmo algo em português que é dito em um primeiro momento, mesmo sendo a sua língua materna.

Quando não entender, continue ouvindo, porque pode ser que o contexto torne aquele trecho indecifrável dispensável. Se desejar, ao final daquele vídeo ou música, volte ao que não entendeu para tentar novamente. O importante é não desistir.

 

Foque na pronúncia

Quanto melhor for o seu domínio da pronúncia, melhor será também o listening. Procure ouvir e repetir o que você ouve: palavras soltas, frases, pequenos textos. Tente gravar a sua voz e depois ouça novamente. Sinta o que você ouviu e veja se lhe parece bom.

 

Noticiários em inglês

Procure vídeos de telejornais apresentados em inglês e assista. Eles costumam abordar temáticas do cotidiano, então, vão ajudar você a entender contextos importantes e corriqueiros, que provavelmente vão ser necessários se um dia você viajar para o exterior ou enfrentar qualquer situação em que precise se virar no inglês.

Leia bastante

A prática regular da leitura ajuda imensamente o desenvolvimento da sua capacidade de memorização e de uso correto do vocabulário e da gramática necessários no momento da fala. Leia o máximo que puder, livros de qualquer estilo. Não importa, o importante é a leitura

Bons estudos!

Como vc pode ajudar no desenvolvimento da linguagem de uma criança.

Existem várias formas de ajudar a uma criança no seu desenvolvimento de vocabulário em inglês. Abaixo seguem algumas dessas ideias

You will notice quite a rich and varied vocabulary. We wouldn’t be expecting a child to produce this kind of language, especially if English is an additional language, but the adult can expose the child to this language, inputting key words and expressions associated with different activities in a fun and natural way. Remember that children like playing with words, even if they don’t know what the word means, and this is a valuable opportunity to work on pronunciation.

Children will reap the future benefits of this language rich environment, so closely connected to the activities that they love doing.

Playing with blocks

  • use language for counting and sorting: How many are there? Shall we put the blue ones here?
  • use positional language: in, on, under, below, behind, next to
  • explore language related to size: big, small, long, short
  • describe what a child is doing while playing: finding, stacking, pulling, pushing, building, pressing, dragging
  • describe shapes and objects the children are making: square, rectangle, tower, house, castle, garden

Dress-ups (and drama)

  • describe the costumes (fairy, princess, pirate, king, clown) and actions for getting dressed: put on, pull up/down, zip up, do the buttons up, unbutton, unzip
  • highlight the relevant parts of the body: put your arms through here, tie this around your waist/wrist, put these on your feet – first your left foot, then your right foot, put this over your head
  • use nursery rhymes and stories to model language for imaginary play
  • develop listening comprehension by encouraging the children act out the rhyme or story in their costumes
  • extend vocabulary associated with role-play: hospital, airport, artist’s studio, garden centre, vet, doctor, routines (breakfast/lunch/dinner/bed time)

Making and decorating (art and craft)

  • name the materials: paint, paintbrush, crayon, felt-tip, marker, card, paper, crepe paper, shiny paper, tissue paper, newspaper, glue, scissors, cotton wool, fabric, sequins, feathers
  • describe properties and textures of materials: runny, thick, smooth, hard, long, short, spiky, rough, shiny
  • experiment with and describe colour
  • use instructions: paint, draw, colour, smudge, blur, blow, copy, pour, make, cut, stick, decorate, hang (it) up
  • art appreciation and describing what the children have made, painted or drawn.

Malleable materials (dough, plasticine, clay)

  • use language of manipulation: push, pull, drop, squeeze, press, bend, twist, roll, stretch, squash, squish, pinch, flatten, poke, scrape, break apart
  • describe length/thickness: longer than, shorter than, the same length as
  • use language related to colour and smells
  • describe texture: soft, hard, squishy, lumpy, grainy, shiny
  • talk about materials that can be added to dough: feathers, sticks, twigs, shells
  • explore language related to shapes

Music and movement activities

  • use language related to actions, position and parts of the body: put your hands up in the air, draw circles in the air, touch your nose, wriggle your fingers, jump, hop, lie face down on the floor, lie on your back, move over there, come closer, curl up into a ball, stretch your arms out as wide as you can, take a nap
  • name musical instruments: shaker, drum, recorder, xylophone, block, triangle, bell, tambourine
  • use language to describe sounds: loud, quiet, soft, high, low, long, short, fast, slow, tap, shake, scrape, knock, tick, hum, howl
  • familiarise children with a range of sounds through onomatopoeia
  • use songs and rhymes to work on pronunciation, rhythm, stress and intonation

Toys and small world play

  • extend vocabulary related to a particular topic: park, zoo, farm, hospital, transport
  • comment on the objects, toys or figurines the children are playing with
  • comment on the settings, scenes, themes or storylines children are developing as they play
  • describe the position of the things the children are playing with: behind, next to, in, on, under

Puzzles

  • describe the pictures and colours on the puzzles
  • comment on the shape of the puzzle pieces: rectangle, square, triangle, circle
  • comment on the position of the puzzle pieces: up/down, here/there
  • encourage the social aspects of using puzzles: take turns, it’s your turn next, share

Sand play and water play

  • use language related to equipment and resources: brush, spade, scoop, spoon, cup, jug, bucket, sieve, cutters, rake, comb, funnel, sponge, soap, bubbles, straw, ladle, tea pot, watering can
  • extend vocabulary related to imaginary play: boats, diggers, bulldozers, tractors, treasure, dinosaurs, pirates, gardens, tea party, firefighter, plumber, dolls
  • use descriptive language: wet, dry, damp, gritty, hard, lumpy, flat, smooth, wavy, sticky, cold, frozen, clean, dirty
  • use language related to size, shape and position
  • describe capacity and quantity: enough, more, less, too much/little, overflowing, how much/many? a pile/cup of…
  • describe actions or what is happening: it’s fallen down, it’s gone, flatten, pour, tip, fill, scoop, cover, stir, splash, leak, drip, float, sink, trickle, spray, wash, dry.

Dislexia e outras diferenças de aprendizado

Quais são as diferenças específicas de aprendizado?

Vários termos são usados ​​para descrever alunos com dificuldades de aprendizagem em diferentes partes do mundo. Neste breve artigo, mostramos algumas das maneiras pelas quais as dificuldades de aprendizagem são agrupadas e definidas no Reino Unido e nos Estados Unidos da América.

No passado, as dificuldades de aprendizagem foram classificadas em sub-tipos distintos, tais como:

“Dislexia” ou “deficiência de leitura”

“Disgrafia” ou “incapacidade de escrever”

“Discalculia” ou “incapacidade de aprendizagem matemática”

«Dispraxia» ou «Transtorno de coordenação do desenvolvimento» (dificuldades de coordenação de movimentos)

Estes sub-tipos de dificuldades de aprendizagem representaram diferentes áreas do desempenho acadêmico que também influenciam a vida das pessoas fora da escola. Verificou-se, no entanto, que existe uma considerável sobreposição entre estes tipos de dificuldades de aprendizagem. Isso tornou muito difícil diferenciar os vários subtipos de maneira confiável.

A solução proposta no Reino Unido foi agrupar essas várias dificuldades de aprendizagem sob o rótulo de Diferenças de Aprendizagem Específicas. O Departamento de Educação do Grupo de Trabalho no Reino Unido (2005) propôs a seguinte definição:

“Os spLDs têm dificuldades particulares, que podem incluir ortografia, adquirir habilidades fluentes de leitura e redação e / ou manipular números que podem indicar que seu desempenho está bem abaixo de suas habilidades em outras áreas. Eles também podem ter problemas de memória de trabalho, habilidades organizacionais, linguagem receptiva e expressiva ou habilidades orais e auditivas, mantendo a concentração e a coordenação. ”

Essa definição inclui dislexia, dispraxia, discalculia e transtorno de déficit de atenção. A Associação Americana de Psiquiatria tomou uma decisão semelhante no DSM-5 (Manual Diagnóstico e Estatístico de Transtornos Mentais – American Psychiatric Association, 2013) e agrupou diferentes dificuldades de aprendizagem sob o termo “transtornos de aprendizagem específicos” (SLD).

Estes incluem três subgrupos de desordem:

distúrbio de aprendizagem específico com prejuízo na leitura

expressão escrita

matemática

O SLD na leitura inclui dificuldades de leitura no nível da palavra (isto é, dislexia) e dificuldades na compreensão da leitura em nível de texto. SLD em matemática é equivalente a discalculia na definição de SpLD utilizada no Reino Unido. O SLD, por escrito, está preocupado com a exatidão ortográfica, precisão gramatical e pontuação e clareza e organização da expressão escrita, e sua contrapartida no Reino Unido é disgrafia.

No DSM-5, o transtorno do déficit de atenção e hiperatividade (TDAH) é classificado nas doenças do neurodesenvolvimento, juntamente com os Transtornos do Espectro Autista (TEA). TDAH e TEA não pertencem diretamente ao grupo de LLDs, pois seus efeitos impactam áreas mais amplas da vida cotidiana, não apenas aprendendo dentro e fora dos contextos escolares.

In English

Various terms are used to describe students with learning difficulties in different parts of the world. In this brief article we show you some of the ways in which learning difficulties are grouped and defined in the United Kingdom and in the United States of America.

In the past learning difficulties were classified into distinct sub-types such as:

• ‘dyslexia’ or ‘reading disability’

• ‘dysgraphia’ or ‘writing disability’

• ‘dyscalculia’ or ‘mathematics learning disability’

• ‘dyspraxia’ or ‘developmental co-ordination disorder’ (difficulties with co-ordination of movement)

These sub-types of learning difficulties represented different areas of academic achievement which also influence people’s lives outside school. It was found, however, that there is a considerable overlap between these types of learning difficulties. This made it very difficult to differentiate the various sub-types in a reliable manner.

The solution proposed in the United Kingdom was to group these various learning difficulties under the label of Specific Learning Differences. The Department for Education Working Group in the UK (2005) proposed the following definition:

“SpLDs have particular difficulties, which may include spelling, acquiring fluent reading and writing skills and/or manipulating numbers which may indicate their performance is well below their abilities in other areas. They may also have problems with working memory, organisational skills, receptive and expressive language or oral and auditory skills, maintaining concentration and co-ordination.”

This definition includes dyslexia, dyspraxia, dyscalculia and attention deficit disorder. The American Psychiatric Association took a similar decision in DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders – American Psychiatric Association, 2013) and grouped different learning difficulties under the umbrella term specific learning disorders (SLD).

These include three subgroups of disorder:

• specific learning disorder with impairment in reading

• written expression

• mathematics

SLD in reading includes word-level reading difficulties (ie dyslexia) and difficulties with text-level reading comprehension. SLD in mathematics is equivalent to dyscalculia in the SpLD definition used in the UK. SLD in writing is concerned with spelling accuracy, grammar and punctuation accuracy and clarity and organisation of written expression, and its counterpart in the UK is dysgraphia.

In DSM-5 attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is classified under neurodevelopmental disorders together with Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD). ADHD and ASD do not directly belong to the group of SpLDs as their effects impact wider areas of everyday life, not just learning in and outside school contexts.